Rhetoric Beyond the Mediterranean

Rhetoric beyond the Mediterranean
1. Major Characteristics of Classical Chinese Rhetoric
According to Chinese Perspectives in Rhetoric and Communication edited by D. Ray Heisey, Chinese rhetorical tradition can be traced back to the 8th century B.C.E, with the emergence of the rhetorical texts known as Shi Jing (the Book of Odes) and Shang Shu (the Book of History). While rhetorical texts produced in subsequent years, such as Zuo Zhuan (Zuo Commentaries), Guo Yu (Discourse of the States), and Zhang Guo Ce (Intrigues), described many rhetorical situations where you shui (traveling persuaders) practiced their persuasive skills through various rhetorical means and strategies (Crump & Dreher,1951; Kroll, 1985-1987), the codification or conceptualization of rhetoric or ming bian, did not take place until the 5th century B.C.E with the texts Lun Yu (Analects), attributed to Confucius, and Dao De Jing (The Canon of Path and Virtue), attributed to Laozi. During the Spring-Autumn and Warring States period (722-221 B.C.E.), many schools of thought emerged, along with the formulation of rhetorical concepts and theories in response to the social/political/ cultural contexts of the time. Based on a careful examination of the major rhetorical texts written by influential philosophers during this period, four characteristics of classical Chinese rhetoric can be identified:1). moral/ ethical emphasis; 2) epistemological emphasis; 3) dialectical emphasis; and 4) psychological emphasis.

1). moral/ ethical emphasis
Moral/ethical emphasis has been a central theme throughout representative Chinese rhetorical texts. Being a moral/ethical person was considered the most essential trait for speakers and rulers alike. Such moral emphasis was advocated and reinforced through narratives concerning virtuous deeds, as well as through conceptualization and dissemination of moral terms. Such terms legitimized and justified rulership. The rhetorical actions of the ruling elite prescribed social norms and set social/cultural standards for communication. In this section, I will introduce a few of these terms.

a). Tian Ming. The first term used frequently in the pre-Qin (before 221 B.C.E.) texts in tian ming, or the Mandate of Heaven. The term is rooted in ancient Chinese cosmology, which taught that Heaven had the ultimate power to choose a ruler for the common people, based on the person’s moral quality. Thus, the term invokes the highest moral principles a ruler can possess. According to the Mandate of Heaven, if a ruler was moral and virtuous in his treatment of the people, Heaven would punish him by removing him from office. Throughout Chinese history, tianming has been used as a powerful means of persuasion to overthrow unvirtuous rulers and legitimize new regimes.

b). Junzi. The term junzi was coined by Confucius to refer to a well-cultivated and morally refined gentleman. According to Confucius, a junzi’s conduct was always guided by moral principles. In contrast to xiaoren (female base persons), a junzi (males) despised money, valued spiritual life, respected authority, and strove for moral perfection. His speech was humble, cautious, and considerate of the interests of other people. Confucius was aware that not everyone in society could become a junzi. Nevertheless, a junzi was a model to emulate, someone who contributed positively to society’s well-being.

c). Zheng Ming. The term zheng ming, meaning rectification of names, was coined by Confucius for the purpose of establishing order and stability in society through the correct use of language or ethical speech. For Confucius, every name or term prescribed a concept and a behavior. The rectification of names led to the rectification of thinking and behaving in ways that conformed to societal norms. In Confucius’s words:
When names are not correct, speech will not be appropriate; when speech is not appropriate, tasks will not be accomplished; when tasks cannot be accomplished, rites and music will not flourish; when rites and music do not flourish, punishment will not fit the crimes; when punishment does not fit the crime, the common people will not know where to put their hands and feet.
For Confucius, through the correct use of terms and promotion of new names or terms, a new set of beliefs and values could be established. As John Makeham (1994) explains, “He (Confucius) did not regard names as passive labels but rather as social and hence political catalysts” (p.46). In this sense, Zheng Ming aimed at transforming Chinese society and its people through the advocacy of certain terms or concepts. For example, Confucius himself advocated
the moral concepts of ren(benevolence), li (rites), zhong yong (the Middle Way), shu (reciprocity), xin (trustworthiness), and yi (righteousness) through his teaching and political advising. His efforts to promote these terms were motivated by a desire to effect social and political change.

2). epistemological emphasis
Like ancient Greek philosophers and rhetoricians, ancient Chinese thinkers were concerned with knowing the world through a dynamic interplay of symbols and symbolic performances. Ming Jia (the School of Ming) was the first group of thinkers to recognize the power of words in shaping perceptions and reality. You Shui, or traveling persuaders, demonstrated their art of persuasion by manipulating the relationship between ming (language) and shi (reality), as exemplified in the pre-Qin historical and literary texts. Further, ancient Chinese thinkers, such as Xunzi and the Later Mohists, approached ming bian with a rational orientation of deductive and inductive reasoning similar to that of Aristotelian logic. The Chinese notions of ming gu (understanding cause and because) and lei tui (classification by kind) were regarded as modes of inquiry for arriving at truth and gaining knowledge, as explicated in the Later Mohists’ text Mo Bian (Chen, 1983).

3) . dialectical emphasis
The Chinese dialectical way of thinking was rooted in the ancient yin yang cosmology, which perceived the world as operating in the interplay of opposite but interrelated elements. Such dialectical thinking was reflected in Deng Xi’s (546-501 B.C.E.) rhetorical concepts of “dual possibilities and dual interpretations” by which an argument could be presented from each side and the persuasive effect achieved through an acute understanding of opposing views and motives (Deng Xi,1985). The dialectical emphasis was most evident in Daoist rhetoric conceptualized by Laozi (500-5C B.C.E.) and Zhuangzi (369-286), both of whom advocated wu wei (nonaction), bu zheng (non-contention), and wu ming (nonattachment of language) in speech and conduct and aimed at bringing seemingly opposite elements into a harmonious whole in order to transcend apparent differences and reconcile polarized views.

4). Psychological emphasis.
The psychological features of rhetoric and persuasion can be traced to you shui’s efforts to offer advice on political and military strategies to state kings in exchange for personal benefits. However, it was Han Feizi (280-233 B.C.E), a Legalist, who first conceptualized shui (persuasion) by analyzing its impact through appeals to human motives, desires, and emotions, in the persuasive process and development of social relations. Han Feizi’s concepts of shu (political strategy) and shi (power position) have been employed with regard to political persuasion and the cunning manipulation of human psychology in interpersonal communication. In Gui Guzi (Fang, 1992), a pre-Qin text on persuasion, such psychological emphasis was further elaborated and exemplified by the concepts of mou (plotting), chuai (estimating), mo (figuring out), you (seducing), and quan liang (weighing advantages and disadvantages).

These are some major themes and characteristics of classical Chinese rhetorical concepts formulated by ancient Chinese philosophers and rhetoricians. The literary, historical, philosophical, and rhetorical texts of the pre-Qin period demonstrated a wealth of rhetorical devices, such as the appeal to authority and sages; the use of historical examples; the use of anecdotes, metaphors, analogies, and proverbs, as well as ethical, emotional, and logical appeals, as means of persuasion for the purpose of moral teaching, political control and expediency, and interpersonal manipulation. Over the centuries, Chinese society changed in many ways, emperors were replaced one after another and political agendas varied from dynasty to dynasty, yet these rhetorical forms and themes remained fundamentally the same. Even in contemporary Chinese rhetoric and communication, we see classical themes and forms resurface, sometimes being appropriated or displaced for various purposes. Such phenomena indicated the enduring force of Chinese rhetorical culture and the relationship between rhetoric and culture.

2. Guiguzi
1). Guiguzi and its Sociopolitical Context
According to Guiguzi, China’s First Treatise on Rhetoric, A Critical Translation and Commentary, The Guiguzi text refers to the Master of the Ghost Valley and is named for its author, who lived in Guigu (Ghost Valley) during the pre-Qin Warring States period. Although his real name is said to have been Wang Xu, he is known as Guiguzi, with the character zi (master) appended to the place, Guigu, to indicate his honorific title as well as the text the allegedly authored. Guiguzi is recognized as the first teacher specifically associated with the “art of persuasion” (Coyle, 1-2; Chen; Xu) and allegedly taught about five hundred students in 378-322 BCE including Sun Bin, military strategist and descendant of Sun Wu or Sunzi, author of the Art of War. Guiguzi was also a contemporary of Aristotle (384-322 BCE), whose On Rhetoric continues to influence Western thinking modes, reasoning patterns, and spoken and written discourse structures. Similarly, Guiguzi has been an enduring influence on ancient and modern Chinese rhetorical practice, statecraft, diplomacy, business conduct, communication, negotiation, ethics, and religion.
Based on the yin-yang philosophy, Guiguzi teaches rhetoric as a related set of strategies, including open-shut, reflect-respond, restrain-fortify, mend-break, agitate arrest, and oppose-ally, weighing, gauging, assessing, deploying, and decision-making. Most of these terms are still in use in China to describe decisions and negotiations.

The pre-Qin Warring States period, when Guiguzi allegedly taught rhetoric, was the “most chaotic and stimulating time” in classical China (Lu, Rhetoric, 61). All of the states were on edge and on alert because they might have to attack or counterattack their enemies at any moment. Kings had to weigh possible moves, know the intent of other kings, and have retaliatory strategies ready. Capable consultants were highly valued, respected, and rewarded. In the Annuals of Lu Buwei (Lushi Chunqiu) written near the end of the States period, Lu Buwei says, “Whether they(rulers) were successful or not depended on one principle: without exception, every ruler who obtained worthies (capable advisors) has a secure state and a glorious reputation; and every ruler who lost worthies has an endangered stated and disgraceful reputation”. Like Greek Sophists, Chinese learned men were eloquent persuaders ready to provide political consultation to kings and also “frequently engaged in debated,” as Lu buwei describes. State rulers sought their political consultation because their enemy states and become the dominant power”. The Warring States era created the need for traveling persuaders and warfare strategists to serve as advisers to kings who wanted to adopt certain policies, govern their people, avoid wars, or conquer the neighboring states.

2) difference between Chinese rhetoric and Western rhetoric at that time
The audience of Chinese rhetoric was different from that of the Western tradition. This understanding of the audience is important to the understanding of Guiguzi’s rhetorical theory, which has been mistakenly interpreted as anti-rhetoric, or manipulation, in the West. The Chinese rhetors were not public speakers but persuaders primarily in a private setting, most often talking to a one-person audience often assumed to be the ruler or a superior. Rhetoric to the single-person audience is often assumed to be the ruler or a superior. Rhetoric to the single-person audience developed special features. The ruler, though not elected, was “anxious to gain the support of the masses or their compliance”, and yet, at the same time, remained critical of his advisors’ words because traveling persuaders were not loyal to any states.

The trained critical listener required that the persuader carefully craft his speeches not only to win the ears of the audience and maintain a hierarchical relationship but also to protect him from the ruler’s persecution that might result from dislikes, as a later analysis of Guiguzi will show. On the one hand, the ruler was supposed to value the advisor’s straight talk because, as Lu Buwei notices, “when the talk is straight, then the crooked is obvious”. On the other, the rulers “like to hear lies and detest straight talk,” writes Lu Buwei. In the process of persuasion, “when words are extremely frank, they incite anger in the listener. When the listener is angered, the speaker is threatened”. To some degree, persuasion in classical China was almost an issue of life or death, wealth or poverty.
When discussing the dangers and difficulties of persuasion, Hanfeizi says,
“Though the ruler himself has not yet divulged his plans if you in your discussions happen to hit upon his hidden motives, then you will be in danger. If the ruler is ostensibly seeking one thing but actually is attempting to accomplish something quite different, and you perceive not only his ostensible objective but the real motives behind his actions as well, then you will likewise be in danger.”

A Chinese proverb also says, “Being close to a king is like being close to a tiger,” meaning that in serving a king, one must carefully weigh situations and measure his or her words for survival. Gaining the ruler’s favor, the persuader would obtain power and wealth, suggests Garrett (“Pathos,” 23). When out of favor, the persuader would jeopardize his or her life, lose all credentials for the future, or live in poverty.

3? My perspective of reasons why it is crucial:
It is crucial for modern people to understand different cultures and politics to study rhetoric. Guiguzi lived in a very harsh political environment and he had to figure out different techniques to deal with or to teach others to deal with issues with the brutal king. There is a Chinese saying, “Time makes the man”. The complicated political atmosphere contributed to Guiguzi’s intellectual wisdom and brilliant rhetoric technique as he had to think on all sides to persuade the singe-audience “king”. In addition, ancient China’s political system might not be as democratic as the ancient Greek politics. Therefore, it is more challenging and precious for Guiguzi to figure out how to present his remonstrances, expound his ideas, and compose such great writing on rhetoric. Unfortunately, he could not escape the trap of words for himself when he eventually met an ultimate death in Qin.

3. Lu Ji's "The Art of Writing"
According to Claudeai, Lu Ji was a Chinese writer, general, and politician who lived during the late Three Kingdoms and Jin dynasty periods. He is best known for his rhymeprose essay "The Art of Writing" (Wen Fu), which discusses the principles of composition and writing. The essay provides advice to writers on topics like finding inspiration, choosing words carefully, achieving harmony in writing, revising drafts, avoiding common pitfalls, and striving for originality.
Lu Ji emphasizes the hard work and constant revision involved in producing great writing. He explores the criteria for excellence, including musicality, harmony, emotion, restraint, and refinement.
The article uses nature metaphors to describe the writing process. It urges writers to be attentive, open-minded, and dedicated to their craft. Lu Ji draws inspiration from past masters and classics, arguing there are no completely new ideas. However, he believes each writer can bring something unique to the "mystery" of writing. He highlights the power of the written word to influence morality, transmit knowledge, and connect past and present. Overall, the essay provides wisdom on the challenges and joys of creative writing.